Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) was a prominent English polymath whose work spanned philosophy, biology, psychology, sociology, and anthropology. Active during the Victorian era, Spencer is best remembered for developing an all-embracing conception of evolution, which he envisioned as the progressive development of the physical world, biological organisms, the human mind, and human culture. He famously coined the expression "survival of the fittest" in his work Principles of Biology (1864) after reading Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species.
Unlike Darwin, Spencer extended the concept of evolution beyond biology into the realms of sociology and ethics. While his ideas strongly suggested natural selection, he also supported Lamarckism, believing that acquired characteristics could be inherited. His synthetic philosophy attempted to unify various scientific disciplines under a single, overarching evolutionary framework, arguing that societies, like organisms, evolve from simple to complex states.
During the late nineteenth century, Spencer achieved immense intellectual authority, particularly within English-speaking academia, and was regarded as one of the most famous European intellectuals of his time. However, his influence declined sharply after 1900, with later sociologists and philosophers questioning the longevity of his theories. Despite this decline, his contributions laid foundational groundwork for early sociology and evolutionary philosophy.
